Social class Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social class - Term Paper Example Though religion has been modified and seems to sustain a much less influential presence in modern society, it is still very much relevant for predicting certain social attitudes and behaviors. There is a well-known sociological theory known as symbolic interactionism which views society as being composed of symbols that are used by people to develop their world view and assist in communications with one another (Henslin, 24). This theory believes that people develop their sense of self based on cultural, environmental or lifestyle symbols and then relate these to the process of building self-identity amongst broader society. Religion has been a fundamental symbol for generations, inspiring art, music, architecture, and glorious church construction. These symbols â€Å"are a great heritage of beauty to all humankind† (Diessner, Solom, Frost, Parsons & Davidson, 304). Under the symbolic interactionism theory, people with a strong commitment to recognizing and esteeming religious principles would find meaning in this pursuit by exposure to these long-standing sociological principles and design constructs. Finding a sense of self beauty through recognition of these rel igious symbols would theoretically assist in developing a positive self-concept measured by symbolic figures rather than through, necessarily, social interaction with others. Traditional religious beliefs include Confucianism, a passive religious belief system that imposes learning, duty, responsibility and tolerance as part of its model (Zhang & Veenhoven, 428). Confucianism believes in self-reflection as part of daily lifestyle and acts as the precondition for improving oneself. The religious symbols such as music and church architecture provide a form of stability and an environment in which to seek perfection. It represents finding commonality with religious icons and through this effort finding their place in the world historically and in modern culture. The goal of communing with

Project Management Resources Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Project Management Resources Paper - Essay Example nd team would have the functional expertise in mapping out the requirements as well as translating the same into usable specifications for the first team. Further the expertise of this team is to be utilized for testing as well as they understand the scope and the functional aspects of the same. The schedule of the project would be for a period of two months. The first couple of weeks would be for the requirements from the various stakeholders and the next month would be spent in actual design and coding. The last couple of weeks would be spent in testing and implementing the tool. In case the schedule is crashed, the requirements phase can be merged with the design phase with parallel activities. This would involve moving beyond the normal â€Å"waterfall† model of SDLC and instead having an agile methodology. Resource risk: divided into two components in terms of knowledge acquisition and attrition risk. The first component is mitigated by training and knowledge sharing and the second component is mitigated by documenting the processes and knowledge management Variance: Any variance in the budget due to time, cost or quality constraints (the â€Å"triple constraint†) should be dealt by all the stakeholders. This is to be done by regular status reporting and identification of potential issues to be resolved by the various stakeholders This paper has attempted to portray some aspects of the project management processes taking an example of an automation tool for a maintenance project in a software company. While this is by no means comprehensive, it does address some of the questions listed in the

Bottled water purchasing patterns of university students

Bottled water purchasing patterns of university students Safe and reliable drinking water is an issue in most of the countries, so companies have installed their plants to supply water in bottles to satisfy the consumers. But the reliability of all bottled water is always questioned. In Pakistan the purified water bottled industry is approximately 25 years old. It made its advent in Pakistan in 1980s. Abehayyat was the pioneer brand at that time. It is a common perception that most mineral bottled water appears to be safe and of better quality than water from other sources (Filtered, Boiled and Tap water), but the quality of some brands is spotty, however, and such products may pose a health risk. (Natural Resources Defense Council, 2008) There are rifts which seek to question the reliability and hygiene of Bottled water. Following are some brands of bottled water which are present in Karachi Market: 1. Aquafina 2. Aqua safe 3.Classic 4. Culligan 5. Kinley 6.Nestle Furthermore, primary research has determined which brands are available, famous and considered to be reliable in the minds of students. Research Problem This research explores the purchasing patterns of university students with regard to their attitude and buying behaviour of mineral bottled water. By attitude I mean the following: Is a particular gender more attracted to mineral bottled water? Is household income affecting the buying behaviour towards mineral bottled water? Do particular brands affect the buying behaviour of students? What is the students perception towards the reliability, and hygiene factors of mineral bottled water? Which type of media is more influential for consumers regarding mineral bottled water? What factors (brand image, company image, price, bottle shape and bottle size i.e. 0.5 liter, 1 liter, 1.5 liters, 2 liters, 5 liters, 10 liters, and others) influence students for using mineral bottled water? These are the major questions which need to be addressed. 1.3 Scope of the Study The study was conducted in only two universities of Karachi First is Karachi University; my focus was only on two departments Food Sciences and Chemistry. Second is Bahria in which our respondents would be students of Management Sciences i.e. BBA and MBA. Study Objectives The main objectives of the study are the following: To explore how demographic factors (income, gender etc) psychographic factors (interest, attitudes, opinions loyalty etc) affect buying of mineral bottled water. To describe the information about brands of mineral bottled water available in Karachi Market To find out which type of source of information (communication medium) is more influential for students towards mineral bottled water. Importance of Research This study has been helpful in evaluating consumers perception towards mineral bottled water in Karachi. What they perceive regarding each and every brand of mineral bottled water. This study has let us know about the top of mind brands of mineral bottled in Karachi market. It can help the companies to know that which segment be targeted and which marketing strategy of mineral bottled water be implemented. 1.6 Research Methodology This study is qualitative in nature. Qualitative method is suitable to ascertain the in-depth insights of students regarding mineral bottled water. It helps in exploring students perception and attitude towards the purchase of mineral bottled water in Karachi. Researchers used in-depth interviews with students based mainly on open ended questions. In depth discussion encourages a spontaneous and free flowing exchange of opinions and ideas among respondents. We have taken two extremes, one is Government owned Karachi University in which Food Sciences and Chemistry departments were interviewed because they deal in chemicals and reactions, so they must have clear knowledge about the composition of mineral bottled water. And second is privately owned Bahria in which BBA and MBA departments were interviewed with mainly upper upper middle class backgrounds. A reason of choosing these disciplines is to get a clear idea of behaviour and class because lots of students drink mineral bottled water as a symbol of status. Non probability, convenience sampling technique was used to conduct In-depth interviews. The questionnaire was finalized after consultation with the instructor, and was used after instructors approval 1.6.1 Sampling Data Collection In this study it includes a total sample of 200 students from two universities of Karachi i.e. KU BAHRIA. Breakup is given as follows: Karachi Institute/Departments Management Sciences Undergraduate BBA Graduate MBA 1.BAHRIA Male Female Male 25 25 25 Sub Total 50 50 Total 100 BBA and MBA students were chosen to assess the different perceptive of two different disciplines. Being business students they have an understanding and knowledge of marketing and brand concepts. Karachi Institute/Departments Food Sciences Chemistry 2.Karachi University Male Female Male 25 25 25 Sub Total 50 50 Total 100 BAHRIA and KU were chosen to get an equal representation of students in Karachi from every aspect i.e. socio-economic class and perception. Aforementioned departments have been chosen, their students possess sufficient knowledge beverages and chemical compositions. Data Collection: Secondary Data: This data was conducted through research Journals, previous Researchers conducted, business magazines and relevant websites Primary Data: Non probability convenient sampling technique was used to collect data through semi-structured questionnaires. Relevant samples (Top of mind brands of mineral bottled water revealed by students at a later stage) 1.7 Limitation of This Study This was a new area of research which had not yet been tapped in Pakistan, so it is very difficult to acquire information (especially from secondary data). This research was confined to only two universities of Karachi. Within those universities two departments were targeted for this research. This research concerns only the behaviour of students towards mineral bottled water because their consumer patterns may differ from outside market or other departments of universities or other universities of Karachi. Growing terrorist concerns resulted in the closure of Universities which led to delays. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Mineral Bottled Water: An Overview Mineral Bottled water by definition is pure water bottled for commercial purposes sold to consumers throughout different countries at different prices. It is now clear that mineral bottled water has become a commodity and various brand names have sprung up around the globe. According to Hall (2007) Water bottling is a huge business which is getting greater, by growing annually about ten percent over the past five years. There is no arguing how much mineral bottled water has become a part of our lives. Mineral bottled water is easily available everywhere in our colleges, universities, hospitals etc. Mineral bottled water has become a popular source of refreshment and revitalization internationally. Mineral bottled water has become a multibillion dollar industry with huge profit margins which has led to some big questions. Can we really put a price on something that is such a sustainable part of life and isnt putting a price on mineral bottled water denying some people the right to consumption of safe and reliable water resources? But even bigger questions are what is mineral bottled water exactly is it pure mineral water or is it just filtered tap water that has gone through a process of purification and put in plastic bottles along with a price tag that has a huge cost to profit margin for the manufacturers According to Eric Goldstein, co-director of the urban program at the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), a non-profit organization devoted to protecting health and the environment. Evocative names and labels representing pastoral scenes have persuaded us that liquid is the purest drink around. But we should not think that mineral bottled water is better regulated, protected and safer than tap water. Some mineral bottled water does come from sparkling springs and pristine sources, but 25 percent or more of mineral bottled water comes from a municipal supply, which is treated, distilled and sold to us, at raised prices. Most people are amazed to find out that theyre drinking overvalued tap water, but bottlers do not need to mention the resource on the label. (Jemmott, 2008). 2.1.1 Origin of Bottled Water Columbia Water Centre says that since ancient times mineral bottled water has been around in some form or the other.  In the first century AD, during the times of the Roman Empire, people would travel to collect water in ceramic containers from the areas source water to their homes to enjoy it, and the rich had slaves and servants who did this for them. Water is and always has been a source of life sustainability and people have always considered mineral water as therapeutic so in some form or the other water has been used for commercial gain. According to the Columbia Water Centre bottled water did not become a business until the 1700s. Before the opening of spas where people used to come for the treatment of illnesses, modern medicine people started to consume mineral waters to help treat constipation, kidney stones and for common health.  The business of mineral bottled water began with the opening of spas. Initially, the spas would give out the water to their guests when they left to take with them.   Then in the early 1800s, the spas began to ship the water to people, by charging only the shipping costs and not for the real water. As this practice rose, the spas realized that they could earn profits by charging for the mineral water also. Vittel, Evian, Perrier and San Pellegrino, are the early suppliers of mineral bottled water who are still well known among others. But according to McCormack (2004) the real boost of bottled water market did not commence until 1968 when Vittel revolutionarily launched the first plastic bottled water aimed for general public consumption and within thirty years time it became a contemporary phenomenon. The plastic bottle made it easier to carry around water for consumption leading to its massive sales and growth as an industry. 2.1.2 Bottled Water Worldwide Scenario According to Jemmott (2008) Mineral Bottled water is in all places, restaurants, homes, stores, offices and aeroplanes and all across the country. In 2006, we consumed more than eight billion gallons of the matter, which was 10 percent more than 2005. Its stimulating, calorie-free, handy, and tastier than the other tap water, also better than sugary sodas. Because of this According to the (World Watch Institute, 2007) consumers feel that choosing bottled water is a convenient alternative to buying many other packaged beverages, which may include unessential sugars, caffeine, and other chemical additives. It would seem that buying and drinking water is a logical action. Water bottlers around the world use this consumer faith to promote their product as convenient, safe and clean etc. They use a variety of marketing tools to communicate their message to their target audience. The non-alcoholic beverage industry spends an average of $2 billion per year (as of 2005) on advertising, making these beverages one of the most heavily advertised commodities in the U.S. (Zheng and Kaiser, 2008) This is no ordinary amount it shows how aggressively the bottled water industry markets its image of purity and safety. 2.1.3 Global Bottled Water Market According to statistics presented by the Global Industry Guide, In 2006 the global market of mineral bottled water grew by 7% and reached to $60,938.1 million, whereas on 2011, the value reached to $86,421.2 million which was an increase of 21.8% from 2006 to 2011. In 2006 market grew by 8.1% and reached a volume of 115,393.5 million litres. The market forecast for 2011 is to have an increase of 51% from 2006 with a volume of 174,286.6 million litres. bottled-water world figures Source: New Internationalist, Plastic is Forever, 2008 The United States holds the highest consumption in terms of countries followed by Mexico and then by China. In terms of regional global bottled water sales Europe is clearly the leader as shown in the pie chart below. Figure 2.8: United Kingdom Bottled Water Market Segmentation II: % Share, by Value, 2005(e) Source: Datamonitor (2), (2005), Global Bottled Water, Industry Profile, p. 12. 2.1.4 Market share and Distribution According to Zhao (2006) Group Danone, which is one of the worlds largest food producers, holds the largest market share in the UK bottled water market by the end of 2004. The company had a 22% of the market consumed volume, followed by Nestle S.A., accounted for 13.4% of the market. The domestic player-Highland Spring, which is one of the UKs leading bottled water suppliers, had 10.3% market share. In 1992 one could find seven hundred brands of mineral bottled water in the United States, and today there are over a thousand brands of mineral bottled water there and the number keep on increasing. The top five companies in the United States are earning billions, and the US companies are controlling just about half of the worlds market for the bottled water. 6 Source: US Bottled Water Industry 2.2 Bottled Water Pakistan Scenario It is clear that bottled water is a global phenomena and the focus of much consumer attention internationally. The figures clearly show a growing consumer trust in bottled water. The question now is does Pakistan have a similar level of consumer trust which has lead to an increase in bottled water consumption. In an article by Syed Ali Muhammad (2005) In Asian Countries, demand for mineral bottled water has developed by leaps and bounds over the past seven years, the Trans-Caucasus, North Africa and Middle East. The bottled water market in Pakistan is observing nearly 40 percent of the annual growth. Advertisement campaigns for mineral bottled water seldom show it as a lucrative luxury item; however they give the impression that it is a part of common effort against shortage of water. According to Rosemann (2005) A yearly consumption of about 2 litres per person bottled water.128 Compared with Thailands 43 litres and Philippines 15 litres per capita consumption, this seems relatively low. But taking Pakistans population into account, one has to estimate an annual consumption of 318 million litres. While again, sufficient figures are not available to prove this 964 percent consumption increase in five years, one is able to conclude that Pakistan is a highly dynamic and lucrative market. The statistics and figures above clearly do mention that Pakistan itself is a very lucrative market. There is a growing concern that people here are putting their trust in bottled water. Consumers use pet water bottles on the go because of their mobility and they use larger bottles of water at their homes for daily drinking purposes. Daily Pakistani consumers are bombarded with a plethora of ads depicting bottled water as pure, hygienic and safe. This may be factual but it also displays a clear opinion that the consumers share that water from other sources namely tap water is not fit for consumption and for people who have a choice they are switching over to bottled water. But are consumers here putting their trust into bottled water a little too early. What are the systems that govern bottled water in Pakistan namely its quality and the availability of safe brands of bottled water in the Pakistani market? 2.2.1 Pakistan Bottled Water Market According to the Standards and Quality Control Authority Pakistan, out of the 200 companies selling mineral bottled water in Pakistan, only 27 companies keep up the set standards. (Syed Ali Muhammad, 2005) The Pakistani bottled water market has about 27 corporations officially selling their products. But during summers there is a high fluctuation and this number exceeds to above and beyond 200 companies that flood the market with products that were not there before. The Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority, under the Ministry of Science and Technology, is the national standardization body. It is their duty to ensure the safety and standards of products in Pakistan. From the viewpoint of quality control, PCRWR is observing a variation in the market of 50 percent, e.g. yearly about half of the brands vanish and are substituted by new brands. In 2005 PSQCA admitted that 200 companies are selling bottled water in Pakistan, but only 27 are registered as maintaining standards stipulated for the product. Nestle itself estimates approximately 150 water brands, with only 15 registered under the PSQCA scheme. (Rosemann, 2005) Rosemann (2005) further states that Nestlà © controls the majority of the market (over 50 percent) with its brands Pure Life, AVA and Fontalia, while Danones subsidy Sparkletts holds 12 percent and another local brand BSW has an estimated five percent market share. 2.3 Consumer Perception towards bottled water In terms of definition consumer perception talks about how a person or an organization views a certain commodity or service. How he or she understands and apprehends that certain commodity or service. In this case consumer perception talks about how a consumer looks at and rates bottled water. What are the factors that lead to consumers purchasing mineral bottled water? According to one study by MRUK research when asked to describe their reasons for using bottled water, respondents cited a range of different answers. In the May 2006 wave of research, over one-third (39%) of respondents reported that bottled water had a better taste, with a similar proportion (36%) who believed that bottled water was of better quality. This represents a significant increase over the September 2005 wave of research when only 14% of respondents cited better quality as a reason for using bottled water. (McKissock et al., 2007) Below is a table listing the reasons consumers use Bottled water: Table 1 Reasons for using Bottled Water April 04 Sept 04 Sept 05 May 06 Better taste 33 23 32 39 Convenience 32 29 31 12 Better quality 16 3 14 36 Safer / healthier for the children 2 5 4 3 Prefer flavoured water 5 7 8 10 Prefer sparkling water 3 5 3 2 Habit 1 16 8 11 Source: Mruk research limited (Consumer Perceptions and Experiences of Drinking Water Quality in Scotland: Secondary Research) In another research by the Consumer Attitude Survey on Water Quality Issues (1993), people do show signs of worrying about tap water safety even in countries where tap water is filtered and provided to people on a regular basis. Figure 2.2: Why people drink bottled water Source: Consumer Attitude Survey on Water Quality Issues (1993), American Water Works Association Research Foundation. p19. (Zhao, 2006) The success story of bottled water as discussed seems to come from a variety of factors. Namely Consumer Perception of higher quality, better taste, convenience etc. Because water is a source of life consumers see some water brands as revitalizing and even consider some water as healing. A notable example is Fuji Water, which was bottled in Viti Levu, Fijis main island, claiming has a very low pH level and contains the highest concentration of silica which helps tissue repair and reduce risk of heart disease, was becoming the No. 1 imported water in the U.S and also found it way to the UK supermarket chain, Waitrose (Rosa, 2004). But this isnt the only perspective that consumers share about bottled water there are many who do feel that bottled water is a drain on our resources, as it takes more water to produce the plastic bottle then it does to actually fill that said bottle. Source: MANATAKA: American Indian Councilhttp://www.manataka.org/images/tapwater.jpg As the picture illustrates there are different perspectives shared around the world. From how bottled water is manufactured to how it impacts our planet and the way we live. According to Jemmott (2008) Agree, some mineral bottled water does come from pristine sources and sparkling springs, but 25 percent or more of mineral bottled water comes from a municipal supply, which is treated, distilled and sold to us, at raised prices. Most people are amazed to find out that theyre drinking overvalued tap water, but bottlers do not need to mention the resource on the label. If more than 25 percent of bottled water comes from the tap instead of some pristine lake or some secret spring full of minerals that are pure then why do consumers feel it is the purest drink out there? This is the perception that has been built around consumers even in countries where tap water is provided filtered to each and every home as a basic human need. The success story then definitely remains to be positive consumer perceptions that outweigh the negative perceptions. It is these positive perceptions that are promoted my billion dollar advertising and promotion campaigns. This positive perception building has led to bottle water becoming big business with even bigger profit margins. Theoretical Framework There are many perspectives to Bottled water around the world from general consumer preferences to University students consumption preferences. Universities around the world in developed countries like U.S., U.K. and Canada have both positive and negative perceptions about bottled water. Students in these universities have various arguments and counter arguments regarding bottled water preferences. Universities students who hold positive perceptions see bottled water as a healthy diet and lifestyle choice, for them bottled water is part of life and walking around campus one can clearly see people holding water bottles. They drink because of positive perceptions regarding taste, quality and convenience (Battle of Water bottle, 2000; Devasenathipathi et al, 2008; Jemmott, 2008; Pip, 2000; Rosa, 2004; World Watch Institute, 2007; Zhao, 2006). They said that every story has two sides to it and because in the developed world tap water is filtered there is a long debate over Bottled Water versus Tap Water. Some students also see bottled water as a waste of precious water resources, a source of plastic poisoning and a drain on the environment. They question its purity and whether it is safe to drink or not. (Bottled Water vs. Tap Water, 2008; 2000, No Bottled Water at University, 2009; Rosemann, 2005; The Battle of Bottle). Both these positive and negative perceptions determine the sales of bottled water domestically and abroad. As discussed above there are different perspectives to Bottled water around the world from general consumer preferences to University students consumption preferences. Therefore, it was our endeavor to find out Students perceptions about Bottled Water in Karachi. What effects their purchase decisions and how and why they choose to or not to drink Bottled water. Data Analysis Findings Monthly Household Income of the respondents of both universities; BAHRIA and Karachi University Aforementioned figures shows that who used bottled water, majority of the BAHIRIAs students have had their monthly income more than Rs.60,000, whereas 28 students household income was Rs.40,000 to Rs.60,000. In addition to that only 2 students those household incomes was under Rs.20,000. While majority students of KU have had their household income in between of Rs20,000 to Rs.40,000. However, only 10 students those household incomes were over Rs. 60,000. 3.2 Residential Area of Students of BAHRI and KU Out of the 18 towns of Karachi, Our research incorporated respondents from 11 towns of Karachi. Figure 3.2(a) explained that the most of the inhabitants of Gulshan town were consuming mineral water than any other type of water. Whereas figure 3.2(b) shows that the most of the inhabitants of Gulshan town were consuming mineral water than any other type of water. 3.3 Type of water were being used by students for daily drinking purpose Above figure 3.3(a) shows that there were huge differences in the responses of the students of university BAHRIA and KU. In figure 3.3(a) shows that in BAHRIA, among 100 interviewed students 57% were the daily users of mineral water, whereas 21% were the users of filtered water, 15% were boiled tap water and only handful amount of students 7% were the users of tap water. On the contrary, figure 3.3(b) shows that among the 100 students of KU, majority 54% were the users of boiled tap water. However, 20% were the users of tap water, 18% were the users of Mineral Water and only small chunk were the users of filtered water. Thus, it is extensively noticeable that the majority of the students of BAHRIA were the users of mineral water comparative to KU. 3.4 Reasons behind drinking particular type of water As per above figure 3.4(a), among the 100 students of BAHRIA, 44% thought that the reliability plays vital role while using particular type of water and 35% were in view of easy access and 21% students preferred to cite their own factors namely hygiene and price. In figure 3.4(b), however, 54% from 100 students of KU believed that easy access is important factor for them rather than reliability. Hence only 46% students marked their answers for reliability. Therefore, there is visible difference between the views of BAHRIAs students and KUs students. For BAHRIANS reliability was the main reason for using particular type of water but for KU students easy access was the foremost reason. 3.5 Top of Mind brands of Bottled water Figure 3.5(a) shows that from 100 students of BAHRIA; Nestle mineral water was the top of mind. Addition to that 80% students recalled Nestle water when they were asked the name of first brand came to their mind. Moreover, only 13% students were recalled Aquafina as their top of mind brand and only 7% students had top of mind awareness of Culligan. In other mentioned brands 42% students recalled Aquafina and 17% for Nestle and 16% Culligan. In figure 3.5(b) 68% students of KU had an awareness of Nestle as their top of mind brand and 27% students recalled Aquafina as their top of mind of brand. In other mentioned brands 33% students marked Aquafina in other mentioned brands, 18% 17% students marked Nestle and Culligan respectively. Hence, it is widely visible that the BAHRIANS has more top of mind awareness of Nestle comparative to KU students. As far as other mentioned brands are concerned Aquafina was being marked after than Nestle by both universities students. 3.6 Frequency of using bottled water among students In figure 3.6(a) out of 100 students of BAHRIA 14% students who were consuming bottled water several times in a day. Moreover, 32% students consumed bottled water at least once in a day, 36% were consuming more than once in a week and 16% students who were consuming bottled water once a week. There were small chunk of students who consumed bottled water less than once a week. However, figure 3.6(b) shows that in KU out of 100 students only 6% of students were consuming bottled water several times in a day. 22% students were consuming at least once daily, 17% students consumed bottled water more than once in a week, and 10% students consuming once a week, 12% students were consuming less than once a week and 33% students were consuming bottled water once a month or less. Therefore, the students of BAHRIA consumed more bottled water than KU students. Similarly, the frequency of consumption of bottled water of BAHRIANS was far more ahead than KU students. Though the respondents of KU belonged to Food and Sciences department yet their frequency of consumption is less than BAHRIANS. However, in KU 33% students marked their answers of consuming water in a month or less, on the contrary there wasnt a single respondent in BAHRIA, whose consumption of bottled water was as lowest as KU students. Aforementioned figures show that the students of BAHRIA were more attracted towards bottled water than KU students. As far as gender was concerned Females were more inclined towards using of bottled water than male; in both universities. 3.7 Size of bottles preferred by students In figure 3.7(a) majority of the students of BAHRIA purchased bottled water from university Cafe and the size of the bottle was 0.5 litre because on the other hand students were in view that the they purchased 1.5 liter or larger than this quantity rather preferred to purchase from shop. As far as figure 3.7(b) is concerned that the students of KU whosoever consumed bottled water they had preferred to purchase from university cafe of 0.5 liter and preferred larger quantity of bottled water from nearby shop of their respective homes. Thus, there is not visible difference because 0.5liter was sufficient for them to consume at university as compared to other sizes of bottled water in both of the universities. 3.8 The most important factors towards buying of bottled water Figure 3.8(a) shows that in BAHRIA 61% students thought of availability was the most important factor for purchasing bottled water, 16% students were in view of Price is the most important for purchasing bottled water, 12% students for promotion and only 9% students thought that they were attracted by the packaging of bottled water. On the contrary, figure 3.8(b) in KU 44% students were in view that availability was the most important factor for purchasing bottled water, 35% students were price conscious, 12% and 9% students were being attracted by promotion and Packaging respectively. Therefore, Price for BAHRIANS is least issue than KU students because only 16% students from 100 students in BAHRIA were considering price, whereas 35% students of KU had the influencing factor of price. Reasons behind influencing factors towards the purchase of bottled water Majority of respondents believed that availability is the major factor for influencing the purchase of bottled water. Moreover, respondents believed that out of mind, is out of sight so being on the shelves of shop would have much influence on the purc

Essays --

It was a cold and blistering Thursday morning. I had just gotten my cup of coffee and was reading the morning paper and there it was on the front page of the Erie Gazette; â€Å"Mogul Industries moving facility to Mexico†. Mogul Industries is the largest automotive support organization in the United States plus it is the major employer in Erie. As a business owner specializing in retail dry good, this concerns me. My first though was about my 100 employees and the future of my store and business. I started hyperventilating and sweating; my wife looked at me and asked me what I was going to do? My first thought was to run, but I knew that would not work for me. Then I had a flashback to my college days at Ashford University in my Organizational Development class. I started to back off the ledge and calm down. I looked at my wife and told her that I have to analyze the challenges facing your company using Organizational Development (OD) principles. Appling the OD princ iple will ensure my business not only stays alive, but possibly transform it into the largest retailer in town. The first question that came from my wife was â€Å"What is Organizational Development?† Richard Beckhard defined Organization Development as an effort to plan, organize, and manage from the top to increase organization effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organizations "processes," using behavioral-science knowledge. (Beckhard, 1969). A simpler definition is that OD is the logical application for behavior science to bring about deliberate change in an organization. The intended objectives and outcomes are for organizational survival through improved adaptability, productivity, and effectiveness. These objectives will be accompl... ... they ought to modify, continue or discontinue the activities. The need for the practitioner decreases during this stage and will gradually disengage from the process as it stabilizes. The client system needs to mature the ability to maintain innovation without outside support. It is important to remember that each stage should be monitored to ensure the process is staying on track. If all goes well, our organization will be on track to surviving the change in the community. Organizations wanting to survive and be successful are faced with the continually evaluating and introducing changes to better their organization. Looking at the corporate world, there are two types of companies. You have the ones who continue to change with the times and those who are going out of business. Our organization is going to adapt and implement continual change if needed.

Leadership characteristics: Autocratic or democratic Essay

Leadership characteristics can be generalized as either autocratic or democratic. The autocratic leader tends to lead by authority and uses coercive power. Oppositely, the democratic leader will delegate authority and use expert and referent power to influence employees. One difference between a mechanistic structure and an organic structure in an organization is the chain of command. Similarly, a difference between an autocratic and a democratic leader is how decisions are made. At the one end of the spectrum, the autocratic side, the manager makes a decision and announces it. This is similar to the mechanistic organizational structure where there is a strict hierarchy of authority and the decision-making is centralized. At the other end of the spectrum, the democratic side, the manager defines limits but lets the group make the decision. This is similar to the organic organizational structure where the decision-making tends to be informal and decentralized within a relaxed hierarch y. After matching the autocratic style with a mechanistic structured organization and the democratic style with an organic structured organization, it is clear that an autocratic or a democratic leader may have difficulty functioning in the oppositely structured organization. Beginning with the autocratic leader working in an organic organization, one major challenge may be learning to work on a team. Organic organizations tend to have many teams and task forces. An autocratic leader is most comfortable with just making a decision and announcing it, however in a team structure they will most likely have to ‘sell’ their decision to the group in order to get any response or action. Learning how to communicate and work along with employees could be the largest adjustment an autocratic leader would have to make in an organically structured organization. At first, it seems easier for a democratic leader to adjust to working in a mechanistic organization. However the problem they will have to face is employees expecting direction and not getting a clear decision. In this case, the productivity is certain to go down because no one is making the decision. It may be hard for a democratic leader to get used to having to make decisions and then have to impose them on their employees. Even though a leader’s personality may be more autocratic or more democratic, ultimately leaders must adjust their style depending on the structure of the organization in which they work. Perhaps the best leader is the one that is able to adjust their style most timely and effectively.

Mexican War and the Spanish American War Essay

Both the Mexican War and the Spanish War were a result of unfair treatment against weaker nations. The origins of the Mexican War lay with the United States and its expansionistic policies. Most Americans believed they had a divine right to bring their culture among others, because they were superior. This belief was put forth by Manifest Destiny, which had been circulating around the United States for a long time. The ignorance possessed by the Americans show no courtesy toward the Mexicans. Under the administration of President Polk, America adopted an aggressive expansion policy that often ignored many inferior countries. In 1492, it was Spain whom sailed across the Ocean and colonized the Amerindian nations of the Western Hemisphere. At its greatest extent, the empire that resulted from this exploration extended from Virginia on the eastern coast of the United States south to Tierra del Fuego at the tip of South America excluding Brazil and westward to California and Alaska. The ambitious United States paid no attention to Spain and aggressively sought more territory and influence in Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. The war started when the United States declared war on Spain after the sinking of an American vessel (Battleship Main) in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898. They war ended on December 10, 1898 after the unfair Treaty of Paris, in which Spain lost all of its overseas possessions including Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippine Islands, Guam, and many others. Both the Mexican War and the Spanish American War were a direct result in the abusive ways of superior power and influence. Manifest Destiny was more encouraged when Polk became President. He was elected president because of his strong support in bringing Oregon and Texas into the Union. President Polk was clearly the antagonist when he sent troops under General Zachary Taylor into land that Mexico held sovereignty, sparking a war. Polk now drafted a message to Congress: Mexico had â€Å"passed the boundary of the United States, had invaded our territory and shed American blood on American soil.† Whether the Mexicans had fired the first shot or the Americans, whether the armies were on Mexican territory or American territory, Polk got his war. Despite the plea of innocence, Mexico cannot escape blame for the war. Mexico never had a strong centralized government to negotiate with a foreign state. Mexico was never even  successful in governing themselves for the time being. Mexico was on the verge of bankruptcy and their army was inadequately trained and equipped. The country was awash with political turmoil throughout the war, indeed, throughout the century, making it near impossible for them to ever conduct a sound defense of the country. Nevertheless, the United States, as a superior nation under Polk’s Presidency assumed an aggressive war like attitude toward Mexico without consideration of the Mexican stance. The conflict between the Spanish and Americans grew dramatically when General Valeriano Weyler began implementing a policy of Reconcentration that moved the population into central locations guarded by Spanish troops and placed the entire country of Cuba under martial law in February 1896. The American government was once again looking to exploit their defenseless neighbors and gain more influence in the countries. The main targets were Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Cuba was the first to initiate its own struggle for independence from Spain. America, being the closest superior power intervened in Cuba’s affairs. The Philippines were also growing intolerable to Spanish rule, and the United States took interest in the Philippines. Following its declaration of war against Spain issued on April 25, 1898, the United States added the Teller Amendment asserting that it would not attempt to exercise hegemony over Cuba. Under Commodore George Dewy at the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1st, the Spanish fleet under Rear Admiral Patricio Montojo was destroyed. The most disrespect followed the signing of the Treaty of Paris when Spain lost all of its overseas possessions. The superior powers, such as the United States, are always looking to profit themselves. During the Mexican war and the Spanish-American War, the dominance and ethnocentric ideals that America held flourished in many un-called-for, disrespectful disputes. The aggressive stance the troops held under Zachary Taylor under the orders of President Polk did not give room for negotiation. If the United States did not get what they wanted, they would insist by force, not by allowing the inferior nation in their eyes to make suggestions that regard their country and dignity. Both the Mexican War and the Spanish-American War resulted because of the unfair and unjust treatment that the United States held in their so-called foreign policy. Hispanic Division Library of Congress http://lcweb.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html A People A Nation 6th Edition The Mexican American War Memorial Homepage -from UMAN The Mexican American War Memorial Homepage -from UMAN Hispanic Division Library of Congress http://lcweb.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html Hispanic Division Library of Congress http://lcweb.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html

The Second World War

The Second World War-A Complete History was the book chosen for this review. It was published in 1989 by Martin Gilbert. Martin Gilbert was a distinguished Britain historian. He graduated Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1960, he received a first class honor degree in modern history. For two years, he was a research scholar at St. Anthonys College, Oxford. He was elected in 1962 to a fellowship at Merton College, Oxford. He worked with Randolph Churchill on the biography of Sir Winton Churchill. He did 20 years of research on Churchill. He wrote Never Despair. He also wrote The Holocaust and Auschwitz and the Allies. This book was chosen for the review because of the historical and detail facts that were given during World War II. It was also chosen because of the many visual aids in the book to make it easier to comprehend. It presents massive amounts of detailing, map outlines of the war, and pictorials to help fully understand why the war was fought. Martin Gilberts direction in the book, The Second World War, was to inform the reader of the events that took place during WWII as well as inform them on its conclusion. He explained the strategies of the five super powers and the different wars pertaining to different countries. He believed this was the most costly war in human history. Gilbert tried to reflect upon the destructive events of the war by displaying the effects on the human condition. He did this through the emphasis and detail of fact within the book. Gilbert states that; ...it is the unnamed men, women, and children whose tragedy is the bitter By saying this, he focuses on the lives changed by the war due to the actual events taken place. The Second World War is basically a documentation of the factual events and strategies that took place from 1939 until 1945. On September 1, 1939 the war began with the invasion of Poland by Germany. Declarations of war soon followed agai...

Cecilia Beaux Bio - American Portrait Painter

Cecilia Beaux Bio - American Portrait Painter Movement, Style, School or Type of Art: Realism, specifically portraiture. The artist was frequently (and favorably) compared to John Singer Sargent, which she took as a compliment. Beaux executed some technically flawless, personally uninspiring drawings of fossils and shells for the paleontologist E. D. Cope in 1874. Though it was a paying job, she so disliked portraying anything except people (and the occasional cat), she never again ventured outside of portraiture. Her start here involved painting the faces of children on yet-to-be-fired porcelain plates a briefly lucrative proposition that allowed her to bank funds with which to pursue her true ambition: oil portraiture in the grand manner (i.e.: full-length poses of nicely-clothed, usually-wealthy sitters). Date and Place of Birth: May 1, 1855, Philadelphia Records indicate that Beauxs christened name was Eliza Cecilia, after her mother, Cecilia Kent Leavitt (1822-1855). She was thus connected with old Main Line Philadelphia Society, although the Leavitt family had become decidedly middle class by the time of the artists birth. Unfortunately, Beauxs mother died of puerperal fever a scant 12 days after giving birth. Her grieving father, silk merchant Jean Adolphe Beaux (1810-1884) returned to France, leaving Cecilia and her older sister, Aimà ©e Ernesta (Etta), to be raised by the Leavitts. Cecilia was known as Leilie to family, for her father could not bear to call the infant by her dead mothers name. Early Life: It may sound incongruous to say that the two little sisters, de facto orphans, were fortunate to be raised by relatives. However, their grandmother, Cecilia Leavitt, and their maiden aunts Eliza and Emily, were remarkably progressive women. Etta and Leilie were educated in a home that valued female scholastic and artistic pursuits, and saw their Aunt Eliza contribute monetarily to the household by working as a music teacher. It was evident from an early age that Leilie had a talent for drawing. The Leavitt women and Aunt Eliza, in particular encouraged and supported her efforts. The girl was given her first drawing lessons, a set of lithographs for beginning art students, and visits to see art by Eliza (who had visual art talents, as well as being a musician). When Aunt Emily married William Foster Biddle in 1860, the couple settled into the Leavitt home a few years later. Beaux would later credit Uncle Willie as the biggest influence in her life, second only to her grandmother. Kind and generous, Biddle helped raise the Beaux girls as if they were his own children. For the first time since Leilie was born, the household had a strong male role model and a bit more discretionary income. He, too, encouraged his neice in developing her artistic talents. Although the Leavitts had little money, they were one of Philadelphia societys oldest families. Uncle Willie paid the fees for both girls to attend the Misses Lymans School a must for young women in society circles. Enrolled at age 14, Leilie spent two years there as a decidely average student. She established many good connections, but was unhappy that she couldnt afford the extra fees for art instruction. When Beaux graduated the family decided that she must have proper artistic instruction, so Biddle arranged for her to study with Catharine Ann Drinker, a distant relative and accomplished female artist. Best Known For: Cecilia Beaux was the first female instructor at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. Important Works: Les Derniers jours denfance (The Last Days of Infancy), 1883-85 Date and Place of Death: September 17, 1942, Gloucester, Massachusetts. Disabled since breaking her hip in 1924, 87-year-old Beaux died at her home, Green Alley. Her grave is located at West Laurel Hill Cemetary, Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, close to Etta (1852-1939) in the Drinker family plot. How To Pronounce Cecilia Beaux: sess ·seal ·ya boh Quotes From Cecilia Beaux: Line is line, space is spacewherever found. The consideration of them is necessary to every work of art, and no such work can exist without them. from the lecture Portriature, 1907.Never was a word more absued than Technique. To many Technique means the purely mechanical, material side of a work, something generally found to be hard, shiny, even vulgar. Just now, to be clumsy is to be admired. Indeed bungling is much in fashion now, in painting. And if one does not bungle naturally, one may easily learn how to do it from the initiated.But the true definition of Technique is very simple. A perfect technique in anything only means that there has been no break in continuity between conception, or thought, and the act of performance. from Address to the Comtemporary Club of Philadelphia Shortly after Sargents Death, 1926In my opinion the charm and magic of color is inseperable from substance; that is, from texture. from the lecture Color, 1928. Sources and Further Reading Cecilia Beaux Papers, 1863-1968. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution. Beaux, Cecilia. Background with Figures: Autobiography of Cecilia Beaux.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930. Bowen, Catherine Drinker. Family Portrait.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1970. Carter, Alice A. Cecilia Beaux: A Modern Painter in the Gilded Age.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  New York: Rizzoli, 2005. Drinker, Henry S. The Paintings and Drawings of Cecilia Beaux.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 1955. Tappert, Tara L. Cecilia Beaux and the Art of Portraiture.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Washington, D.C.: National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.-. Beaux, Cecilia.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press, (27 January 2012). Read a review of Grove Art Online. Yount, Sylvia, et al. Cecilia Beaux: American Figure Painter (exh. cat.).Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. Go to Artist Profiles: Names beginning with B or Artist Profiles: Main Index

Gilligans Ethics of Care

Gilligan's Ethics of Care Psychologist Carol Gilligan is best known for her innovative but controversial ideas on the moral development of women. Gilligan emphasized what she called an â€Å"ethics of care† in womens moral reasoning. She placed her approach in direct opposition to Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which she claimed was biased against females and emphasized an â€Å"ethics of justice.† Key Takeaways: Gilligan's Ethics of Care Carol Gilligan believed women’s morality arose from real-life dilemmas, not hypothetical ones. She came up with three stages of moral development that emphasize an ethics of care.Pre-conventional stage: women are focused on the self.Conventional stage: women have come to focus on their responsibilities towards others. Post-conventional stage: a woman has learned to see herself and others as interdependent. Gilligan developed her thinking in response to the stages of moral development outlined by Lawrence Kohlberg, which Gilligan claimed were gender-biased and emphasized an ethics of justice. However, research by other scholars has shown that two moral orientations exist- one towards care and one towards justice. Origin of Gilligan’s Ethics of Care In 1967, a few years after receiving her Ph.D. from Harvard, Gilligan started a teaching position there. She also became a research assistant for Lawrence Kohlberg, who developed a popular theory of moral development. Gilligan’s work was a response to the gender bias she saw in Kohlberg’s approach.   Kohlberg’s theory of moral development included six stages. At its highest stage, an individual develops a deeply held, self-defined set of moral principles that one wishes to apply equally to all people. Kohlberg cautioned that not everyone would reach this sixth stage of moral development. In subsequent studies, he found that women tended to score at lower stages of moral development than men. However, Gilligan pointed out that the research Kohlberg did to develop his stage theory only included young white male participants. As a result, Gilligan argued that men werent morally superior to women. Instead, the reason women scored lower in Kohlberg’s stages than men was that Kohlberg’s work discounted the voices of women and girls. She outlined this position in detail in her seminal book In a Different Voice, which she published in 1982. Gilligan decided to study the development of moral reasoning in women herself and found that women thought about morality differently than men. Men, as exemplified by Kohlberg’s theory, tend to look at morality through a lens of rights, laws, and universally applied principles. This â€Å"ethics of justice† has traditionally been viewed as an ideal in patriarchal Western cultures because it is championed by men. However, women tend to look at morality through a lens of relationships, compassion, and responsibility to others. This â€Å"ethics of care† has often been overlooked because of the limited power women have typically held in Western societies. Gilligan illustrated this difference in the moral reasoning of males and females by articulating the thinking of a boy and a girl participants responses to the â€Å"Heinz dilemma† from Kohlberg’s studies. In this dilemma, a man named Heinz must choose whether or not to steal medicine he can’t afford to save the life of his dying wife. The boy participant believes Heinz should take the medicine because the right to life is more important than the right to property. On the other hand, the girl participant doesn’t believe Heinz should take the medicine because it could land him in jail for stealing, leaving his wife alone when she needs him. As this example demonstrates, the ethics of justice is impartial. Principles must always be applied in the same way, even if that means it negatively impacts the individual or someone they’re close to. On the other hand, the ethics of care is contextual. Morality isn’t based on abstract principles but on real relationships. Given these gender differences, Gilligan proposed that women don’t stop developing morally at lower levels than men, but that women’s moral development simply continues along a different trajectory than the ethics of justice measured by Kohlberg’s scale. Gilligan’s Stages of Moral Development Gilligan outlined her own stages of moral development based on an ethics of care. She used the same levels Kohlberg did but based her stages on interviews with women. Specifically, because Gilligan believed women’s morality arose from real-life dilemmas, not hypothetical ones, she interviewed women trying to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy. Her work yielded the following stages:   Stage 1: Pre-Conventional At the pre-conventional stage, women are focused on the self and emphasize their own self-interests over other considerations. Stage 2: Conventional At the conventional stage, women have come to focus on their responsibilities towards others. They are concerned with care for others and being selfless, but this position is defined by society or other people in the woman’s orbit. Stage 3: Post-Conventional At the highest stage of moral development, the post-conventional stage, a woman has learned to see herself and others as interdependent. These women have control of their lives and take responsibility for their decisions, a big part of which is the choice to care for others. Gilligan said that some women may not reach the highest stage of moral development. In addition, she didnt attach specific ages to her stages. However, she did claim that it wasnt experience that drove a woman through the stages, but cognitive ability and the woman’s evolving sense of self. Can the Ethics of Care Extend to Men? While the ethics of care was developed based on research with women, Gilligan has insisted that the ethics of care and the ethics of justice aren’t mutually exclusive. Instead of focusing on gender, Gilligan preferred to focus on the different themes brought up by these two perspectives on morality. Although this meant that men could develop an ethics of care, Gilligan indicated it was likely more common in women. Research by other scholars has backed up some of Gilligan’s assertions. On the one hand, studies have indicated that the gender differences on Kohlberg’s stages aren’t especially pronounced, suggesting that there may not be a strong gender-bias in Kohlberg’s work. On the other, studies have shown that people have two moral orientations that line up with Gilligan’s ethics of justice and ethics of care. And studies have found that the moral orientation towards care is stronger in females. Thus, while both men and women can and will develop both orientations, one may be more influential in men than in women and vice versa. Furthermore, research suggests that as people age and reach the highest stages of moral development, the two orientations may be more equally represented in the individual, regardless of gender. Critiques Despite the evidence for some of Gilligan’s ideas, they have also been criticized for a number of reasons. One critique states that Gilligan’s observations are the result of societal expectations of gender rather than differences that naturally arise from gender. Thus, if societal expectations were different, the moral orientations of males and females would also be different. In addition, feminist psychologists are divided over Gilligan’s work. While some have praised it, some have criticized it for reinforcing traditional notions of femininity that could continue to lock women into care-giver roles. Feminists have also pointed out that women are not a monolith. They argue that Gilligan’s work makes women’s voices seem homogenous, while denying their nuance and diversity. Sources Bell, Laura. Profile of Carol Gilligan. Psychologys Feminist Voices Multimedia Internet Archive. feministvoices.com/carol-gilligan/â€Å"Carol Gilligan Moral Development Theory Explained.† Health Research Funding. https://healthresearchfunding.org/carol-gilligan-moral-development-theory-explained/Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.â€Å"Ethics of Care.† New World Encyclopedia. 15 August 2017. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ethics_of_careGoodTherapy. â€Å"Carol Gilligan.† 8 July 2015. https://www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/carol-gilligan.htmlSander-Staudt, Maureen. â€Å"Care Ethics.† Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://www.iep.utm.edu/care-eth/#SH1aWilkinson, Sue. â€Å"Feminist Psychology.† Critical Personality: An Introduction, edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky, SAGE, 1997, pp. 247-264.

CONTRACT LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

CONTRACT LAW - Essay Example According to Sir Frederick Pollock, contract is â€Å"A promise or set of promises which the law will enforce2 In the general conclusion of a contract, we can understand that various elements are essential in the creation of a contract which includes an agreement, consideration, and intention to create legal relations, form, capacity, legality and other such. â€Å"A valid contract requires: (1) an agreement; (2) an intention to create legal relations; and (3) consideration (unless the Contract is made by deed). Whilst each of these three requirements receives separate treatment, they must in reality be looked at together.3 When all these are in existence, we understand that a contract is in operation. â€Å"In addition, a contract consists of various terms, both express and implied. A term may be inserted into the contract to exclude or limit one partys liability (the so-called â€Å"small print†). A term may also be regarded as unfair. A contract may be invalidated by a mistake and where the contract has been induced by misrepresentation the innocent party may have the right to set it aside.† 4 This is an enforceable law the violation of which is considered serious offence and, thereby, requiring penalty and consequences. â€Å"If one party has made a statement to the other about the subject matter of the contract, in some systems he may become liable for breach of contract (non-performance) if what he says turns out to be incorrect.† 5 Therefore the party that violates the contract is normally bound to receive its consequences. â€Å"A non-performance which is not excused may give the aggrieved party the right to claim performance, recovery of money due, or specific performance, to claim damages, to withhold his own performance, to terminate the contract and to reduce his own performance.† 6 In this background let us consider the two cases given for discussion. To consider the first case of contract violation

Consumer Protection and the Criminal Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Consumer Protection and the Criminal Law - Essay Example , the plaintiff is not the actual crime victim; it is the European Union State in which the individual resides. According to the Framework Decision 2001-Standing of Victims in Criminal Proceeding, it is the responsibility of the member states to assure that the victims who wish to be informed throughout the course of the judicial process be informed. The scope of the information provided includes information on the outcome of the judicial proceeding, information necessary to maintain the security of the victims and their families, information regarding the sentence as well as the necessary services available to help the victim (Legislation Online, 2004). The Standing represented a starting point in the treatment of crime victims but it was necessary to supplement those findings. The supplementation came in the form of the 2006 recommendations. The recommendations operated with the aim of updating the standards since the laws have changed, preventing re-victimization and offering clea r an concise guidelines aimed at ensuring that the member States treat the victims in accordance with the laws (European Committee on Crime Problems, 2006). In addition to the standing of victims in criminal proceedings the notion of restorative justice looms large. ... ustice places the needs of the victims first and foremost and justice is rendered in such a manner as to enable the victim to have optimal participation in the course of justice while encouraging accountability on the part of the offender (Rigby 82). Utilizing the notion of restorative justice, a victim may request a restorative justice as a means of making the offender cognizant of the way in which the crime has affected the victim, gaining information as a means of coming to grips with the rationale behind the crime and the reason he/she has been made a victim and finally to gain closure by being able to forgive the offender in an open manner. Restorative justice marks a stark departure from the traditional form of justice which was essentially retributive justice wherein the preliminary goal was one aimed at punishing the offender by restricting his/her liberties and/or imparting monetary restitution. This is an indirect means of rendering justice as often the terms of the punitive measures undertaken are reached with minimal input or involvement by the victim (Cartwright 81). In examining the notion of restorative justice, it is prudent that we examine the rights of victims and frame this examination within the context of applications of restorative justice. First and foremost, the rights of victims and the responsibilities of the judicial system are delineated in the Human Rights Act of 1998, the Crime Victims Charters, Code of Practice for Victims, Victims Advisory Panel and other governmental bodies including the European Council. These bodies together delineate and define the treatment of crime victims with the goal of minimizing the effects of the crime on the victim while ensuring the rights of the victimizer are not violated. The rights of crime

Emotional development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Emotional development - Essay Example A multi-agency team, consisting of a play worker, a nursery nurse, and a teaching assistant, worked with Rose to help her come out of her emotional trauma. Fun tools available to the kids and the types of play activities were observed, along with special consideration given to the team’s supervision and other adults’ direct or indirect contribution in play activities. The team saw positive outcomes. 2. Importance of Attachment and Its Effects on Brain The importance of attachment of infants and toddlers with the parents or caregivers cannot be denied in terms of healthy mental development. â€Å"The impact of attachment disruptions on children’s lives can be devastating and far-reaching†, state Kaduson and Schaefer (2006: 148). When the child enjoys vigorous attachment with the caregiver, he will learn how to offer and maintain a devoted and compassionate relationship that benefits the child in both the short and long run. He will learn to rely on others. The long term outcome will be a contented, independent, and confident personality. On the other hand, when the child does not have an attachment bonding with the caregiver, he will learn to fear, to feel guilty, and to feel the world as a place which is not safe and where his needs are not going to be met. The long term outcome is a timid personality suffering from inferiority complex. Hence, we see that the attachment between the infant/toddler and the caregiver has significant importance in terms of personality developmental outcomes. 3. Components of Healthy Attachment According to Kaduson and Schaefer (2006: 267), â€Å"a healthy attachment allows for a balance between the toddler’s developmentally appropriate exploratory drive and need for emotional reassurance and support.† A healthy attachment between an infant and the caregiver has two components. the infant’s needs that he wants the caregiver to fulfill the timely response of the caregiver The attachmen t occurs when the infant has a sure feeling that the parent or the caregiver will always be there to fulfill his needs of hunger, thirst, clothing, cleaning, and the like. When the caregiver gives a timely response to the infant, this gives rise to trust. The infant forms trust on the caregivers when his needs are fulfilled and forms an attachment with them. When the infant feels otherwise, he learns to mistrust others. Attachment also includes such efforts by the infant with which he tries to remain in physical contact with the caregiver, for example, holding a finger tight, clinging to the bosom, sticking to the lap, and etcetera. 4. Parenting Styles and Attachment Parents and caregivers can play very important role in developing and maintaining healthy bonds of attachment with the children (Maccoby 1992). When the caregivers give the children the chance to share their problems and express their needs to them, they are actually ensuring them that they can always depend upon them f or a solution. Parents use many approaches while parenting, most common of which are authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved styles. Attachment occurs when the child feels secure with his parent’s parenting style (Strage & Brandt 1999). Authoritarian parents leave no room for reasoning and communication. Authoritative parents leave room for objections. They listen to their child’s ideas and reason with them due to which the child

Social Media and Academics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Social Media and Academics - Essay Example New media technology is highly associated with the transfer of information that is designated to be manipulated in some way. There are basic traits that are common to all forms of new media technology that confirm that social media is a form of new media. First, all forms of new media technology can be utilized in nearly all the markets across the world, that is, they are not bound or limited to any geographical factor such as distance. New media technologies also have the great level and speed of communication, which is attributed to the fact that they highly utilize the internet. Thirdly, the high level of interactivity enables the users to adopt new methodologies while they are transferring their own information. Fourthly, the new media technologies can incorporate other forms of communication such as telephony and video, which were previously isolated by old media (Leah and Sonia, 2002). Based on this traits, it is correct to assert that social media is a form of new media since the studies by Neal (2012), equally stated that various social media sites have the traits listed above. Social media sites The discussion in this present study will be referring to social media sites such as Facebook, which is the world’s most popular social media sites, followed by Twitter. LinkedIn is a popular social networking site mainly for businesspersons and professional while academia.edu is a social networking site for researchers and academicians. Other popular social media networking sites with mixed capabilities include MySpace, Google Plus, and Tagged, among others. According to Leah and Sonia (2002), one of the most critical features of these social media sites is interactivity. In this regard, the authors stated that social media technologies have the capacity to enable user-to-user interactivity and interactivity between the information and the user. This statement tends to prove that social media has brought about a paradigm shift that existed in the tradit ional model of communication which was â€Å"one-to-many† i.e. mass media communication. However, social media has enabled communicated to be conducted via the approach of â€Å"many to many† communication i.e. individualization media. Oliver (2007) further stated that interactivity option in most social media sites has so far been enabled by media convergence, the digitalization of media and dissemination of internet access points. The interactive capabilities of social media sites enable it to be applied for various uses that include socialization, educational, marketing, and a medium of communication. How social media is linked to academics As it has been noted above social media, has great capabilities of improving the interactivity between users and therefore, from an academic's perspective Joosten (2012), stated that it has recently been integrated into the online learning or e-learning platform, whereby besides using the official e-learning websites, the teacher s and learners also interact with each other via social media sites. In the writings by Wankel (2011), he stated that social media has created a link with academics since learners have developed their own links or pages whereby they interact and share notes as well as ideas that pertain to their learning process.

The Role of E-Learning In Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Role of E-Learning In Education - Essay Example The starting point or etymology of e-learning is contested, with e-letter not necessarily meaning electronic as per the cases of e-mail or e-business and between 1998 and 2000, e-learning became initially attached to either a distance learning system or it was used surprisingly at the CBT service gatherings or rather seminars and since then the terminology has been used broadly to refer to the use of online services or education system which is vital. It is clear that in some countries there are rules and regulations regarding this field of education. As per the scholars, a great number of universities in Europe have adopted the e-learning system and also they have included them as a part of their school curriculum. The e-book article shows clearly that e-learning processes are encouraged by the accessibility of free materials for documentation hence the universities have felt that it was more or less a better source of concentrating on materials since they simply need to provide con nection to the internet for students to access the advanced campuses (Brigitte et al. 2006, p. 11). This source is reliable to me since it gives vivid and detailed information on that; it is simple to understand the crucial arguments and the main ideas. The source is also loaded with a considerable measure of crucial information concerning the research theme mentioned above. Some courses, for example, the general courses in relational abilities and HIV AIDS aptitudes are exclusively being offered through the e-learning projects. Some years back, e-learning received an awful perspective, as numerous people had that perspective that allowing computers into the classrooms would eradicate that human element that learners need to acquire from their teachers, however as time has gone by, technology has progressed, and nowadays we accepted and support the use of smartphones in the classrooms and as well utilizing a wealth of interactive designs that makes distance learning engaging for the users, as well as valuable  as a lesson delivery medium.

Article Precis 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Article Precis 1 - Essay Example This report summarizes the research conducted on 233 employers who were investigated for their perceptions regarding the employees’ skills, and their level of satisfaction with the skills of their workforce. Skills studied in this research included generic skills like communication and teamwork. The business sectors assume the responsibility of making the students and universities aware of their expectations so that the skills incorporated in the students through the educational programmes may be made consistent with the requirements of the market. The top ten skills of employees considered important by the employers included in the study in the order from most important to least important were found to be communication skills, team-working skills, integrity, intellectual ability, confidence, character/personality, planning and organization skills, literacy i.e. good writing sills, numeracy i.e. the employees should be good with numbers, and analysis and decision-making skills . At least 60 per cent of the employers considered the social skills of the employees and their personalities more important than their academic qualifications. 85 per cent of the employers considered the communication and team-working abilities of the employees to be of immense importance. The traditional hard skills of literacy and numeracy were found to be ranked 8th and 9th in terms of importance as ranked by the employers. One reason for this could be the fact that employers generally expect the employees to have these hard skills, and these skills are thus taken for granted. According to the employers included in the research, personality of an employee matters more in small companies as compared to large companies because the effect of individuals’ personalities is more influential in small teams as compared to large teams. This research also investigated the top 10 skills that the employers are satisfied with. These skills when ranked from the most important to least important were found to be IT skills, postgraduate qualification, good degree classification, qualification of the employee from a reputable institution, employee’s intellectual ability, character/personality, team-working skills, relevant course of study, integrity, and cultural fit with the company. This research found the importance-satisfaction gaps with respect to the skills of employees in view of the employers. The largest importance-satisfaction gaps in the skills of new graduates ranging from the maximum gap to the minimum gap were found to be in commercial awareness, analysis and decision-making skills, communication skills, literacy i.e. good writing skills, passion, relevant work experience, planning and organizational skills, confidence, and personal development skills. The top ten most important skills in new graduates with respect to the degree of internationalization of the employing firms ranging from the most important to least important were found to be com munication skills, team-working skills, integrity, intellectual ability, confidence, character/personality, planning and organizational skills, literacy, numeracy, and analysis and decision-making skills. The online recruitment media was found to be both the most frequently used recruitment medium and the most effective medium in view of the employers whereas student magazines were found to be both the least frequently used and the least effective medium

The Role of E-Learning In Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Role of E-Learning In Education - Essay Example The starting point or etymology of e-learning is contested, with e-letter not necessarily meaning electronic as per the cases of e-mail or e-business and between 1998 and 2000, e-learning became initially attached to either a distance learning system or it was used surprisingly at the CBT service gatherings or rather seminars and since then the terminology has been used broadly to refer to the use of online services or education system which is vital. It is clear that in some countries there are rules and regulations regarding this field of education. As per the scholars, a great number of universities in Europe have adopted the e-learning system and also they have included them as a part of their school curriculum. The e-book article shows clearly that e-learning processes are encouraged by the accessibility of free materials for documentation hence the universities have felt that it was more or less a better source of concentrating on materials since they simply need to provide con nection to the internet for students to access the advanced campuses (Brigitte et al. 2006, p. 11). This source is reliable to me since it gives vivid and detailed information on that; it is simple to understand the crucial arguments and the main ideas. The source is also loaded with a considerable measure of crucial information concerning the research theme mentioned above. Some courses, for example, the general courses in relational abilities and HIV AIDS aptitudes are exclusively being offered through the e-learning projects. Some years back, e-learning received an awful perspective, as numerous people had that perspective that allowing computers into the classrooms would eradicate that human element that learners need to acquire from their teachers, however as time has gone by, technology has progressed, and nowadays we accepted and support the use of smartphones in the classrooms and as well utilizing a wealth of interactive designs that makes distance learning engaging for the users, as well as valuable  as a lesson delivery medium.

Missed Opportunities Essay Example for Free

Missed Opportunities Essay Located between East Asia, Southeast Asia and the vast Pacific Ocean lies an archipelago of 7,107 islands collectively called as the Philippines. Due to its strategic location as the Pacific’s Gateway to Asia, as well as its abundant natural resources, the Philippines had become one of the most prized possessions of the superpowers. This archipelagic nation had been subjected to colonization under Spain, Japan, and the United States. In July 4, 1946, independence was finally granted to the Philippines by the United States. Just like many newly-independent states, it was hard for the country to undergo the process of decolonization. But despite the rough road for development and self-government, the Philippines had the best promises of economic prosperity back then. Its economic indicators were among the best in the region, just following behind Japan. It was predicted to be one of Asia’s emerging superpowers. Apparently, it seems that the Philippines fell short of these expectations. The economy plummeted, especially under the authoritarian regime of the infamous dictator, Ferdinand Marcos. This paper will take a look at the political and economic conditions of the Philippines under the leadership of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965-1986. It will strive to find explanations as to why unlike the similarly strong, authoritarian, and strict governments of Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore, and Deng Xiaoping of China which brought prosperity to their respective countries – Ferdinand Marcos’s government failed, and even brought the Philippine economy into its darkest times. Background Ferdinand Edralin Marcos was a revolutionary man, a respectable figure in Philippine politics. He was the son of a teacher and a politician, and since his early years, his potential as a great leader was seen. The most remarkable story preceding his political career was when he was accused of killing his father’s political rival. He successfully petitioned the Philippine Supreme Court to release him on bail, thus allowing him to finish a Bachelor’s Degree in Law in the University of the Philippines. He eventually passed the board exam in flying colors. But shortly after this victory, the verdict has arrived, and he was guilty of murder, which sentenced him to ten years in prison. With his brilliance and wit, he prepared his own appeal and had his case defended only by him. On his own, he was able to cleanse himself of the charges accused of him. He was freed, and news of the brilliance and intelligence of this young man was known and celebrated throughout the country (Steinberg, 2007). For 6 years, Marcos served in the Philippine Army during World War 2. After the war, Marcos had his political career started, while working as an assistant to the former Philippine President Manuel Roxas. Shortly after, he was elected as a congressman in his hometown province of Ilocos. Before running in the national elections, he made a wise move by marrying a very beautiful and charming wife, a former beauty pageant queen by the name of Imelda Romualdez. During campaign period, they were like stars in a romance movie – a couple of wit and beauty, and it proved to be effective in catching the hearts of the Filipino people. This unique appeal, of providing a mother-father appeal to the country was successful – it eventually gave Marcos a seat in the Senate, and later on, the coveted Presidential Seat in 1965 (Steinberg, 2007). In the early years of the Marcos love team, the couple (Imelda, even though she was not an elected politician, was very dominant in all areas of Philippine politics) pushed for projects such as infrastructure and food production. Marcos did not fall short of the expectations of the people. He was successful in improving the country’s situation, especially its economy. In fact, GDP growth increased from 5. 1% in the 1960s to more than 60% in the 1970s. Levels of investment increased, and export growth reached 8% in the 1970s from 2. 2% in the 1960’s. The Philippines also became a leader in rice production during the Green Revolution, with food production per capita growing to more than 20%, allowing the country to be self-sufficient in rice (Jayasuriya, 1986). These statistics partly came from the first presidential term of Marcos. In 1969, he won a second term, thanks to the aforementioned achievements. Growth continued until the first few years of his second term. However, many fundamental problems gradually appeared in the beautiful scenario of the growing Philippine economy. In the South, insurgency among the Separatist Muslim groups was emerging; there were many demonstrations against the government’s support for the US policies in the Vietnam War, as well as the presence of their military bases in the country; and the economy was weakening, painting a picture of dissatisfaction among the Filipino People (Steinberg, 2007). Marcos took advantage of this unfavorable political and social climate of the country. Under the Constitution, a person can only hold on to the Presidential Seat for a maximum of two terms (Jayasuriya, 1986). Clearly, time was running out for Marcos, and so in 1972, with the excuse of stabilizing the country, he declared Martial Law and tightened his grip on to power and wealth through authoritarian rule. Another part of the statistics mentioned before is attributed to the early years of the Martial Law. Martial Law in fact, was lauded by international entities, including the World Bank, stating that â€Å"recent developments offer an opportunity for a more serious attack on the very difficult social and economic problems presently confronting the Philippines† (Boyce, 1993). Under Martial Law, however, there was no free press, key opposition figures were jailed, numerous human rights violations were committed, a curfew and many other restrictions were imposed among the population, and everything the dictator said was a decree. Indeed, power was solely under the hands of the Marcoses and their allies (Steinberg, 2007). However, despite this strict rule, the Philippine Economy was continuing to deteriorate. And by the early 80s, there was crisis and uncertainty in the country’s politics and economy. It was a combination of internal and external factors – there was world recession caused by the second oil shock in 1979, oil imports were becoming more expensive while export prices were falling, and there was a steep increase in the interest rates of foreign borrowings, where the Philippines was heavily dependent on (Bresnan, 1986). He eventually lifted Martial Law in 1981, but called for an election which he eventually won again. Even so, the problems faced by the country were still the same, and Marcos himself started suffering from complications. He acquired an illness by the name of lupus erythematosus, which made required him to undergo dialysis and have his kidneys replaced. His credibility as a leader was further questioned as he appeared to be dying. It was indeed a hard time for the Philippines. All these events climaxed when Benigno Aquino, opposition leader and greatest rival and critic of the Marcos government, was assassinated on August 21, 1983. It was the ultimate event that would trigger and stimulate the urge of the people to let Marcos step down. For the years to come, a sentiment of disgust against the Marcos regime grew. To appease the people, a snap election took place, and the candidates for presidency were Beningno Aquino’s wife, Corazon Aquino, and Mr. Marcos himself. The election appeared to have no credibility, as both parties claimed that they won, and both of them had sworn as President at the same time in different locations. Most people however, doubted the victory of the dying dictator, they believe that Mr. Marcos has cheated his way on to power this time. The people were simply tired of the injustices under the Marcos regime, as well as his greed and tight grip to power. In February 22 1986, hundreds of thousands of people wearing yellow peacefully gathered on Metropolitan Manila’s most important highway, EDSA (Epifanio Delos Santos Avenue). It was a prayerful demonstration urging Marcos to step down and leave the Palace. Eventually, after four days of tireless demonstrations, Marcos flees and flies to Hawaii for exile (Weir, accessed 2008). The rest was history. Corazon Aquino became the first female Filipino President, and EDSA Revolution inspired other nations, such as Germany during the Collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989, to start their own peaceful revolutions.

Analysis of Conceptual Frameworks in Accounting

Analysis of Conceptual Frameworks in Accounting Introduction International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) has begun a mutual project with US Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) to rebuild the existing frameworks and converge them into a common framework. First, some background. The US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has proposed that companies required to file financial statements with the SEC begin replacing U.S General Accepted Accounting Principles (US GAAP) with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) beginning in 2014. For all practical purposes this means the eventual adoption of IFRS (principles-based) for all companies in the United States (U.S. accounting standards are considered to be rule-based model). The shift aims to harmonize US accounting standards to an international one in tandem with the globalization of capital markets.Norwalk agreement between the FASB and the IASB was signed paving the way for the creation of more principles-based accounting standards for global financial reporting (Wikipedi a, 2010). What is  a Conceptual Framework? International Conceptual Framework of Financial Reporting is a system of interactive objectives and fundamentals which lays out a set of consistent standards in preparing financial reports.A conceptual framework is akin to a constitution that prescribes the nature, function and limits of financial accounting and financial statements. Why is a conceptual framework necessary? First, to be useful, standard setting shouldbuild on and relate to an established body of concepts and objectives. A soundly developed conceptual framework should enable the IASB or FASB to issue more useful and consistent standards over time. A coherent set of standards and rules should be theresult, because they would be built upon the same foundation. The framework should increase financial statement users understanding of and confidence in financial reporting, and it should enhance comparability among companies financial statements. Second, new and emerging practical problems should be more quickly solved byreference to an existing framework of basic theory. For example, PandaCorporation sold two issues of bonds that it would redeem either with $1,000 in cash or with 50 ounces of silver, whichever was worth more at maturity. Both bond issues had a stated interest rate of 9 percent. At what amounts should the bondshave been recorded by Pand a or the buyers of the bonds? What is the amount ofpremium or discount on the bonds and how should it be amortized, if the bond redemptionpayments are to be made in silver (the future value of which was unknownat the date of issuance)?It is difficult, if not impossible, for the FASB or IASB to prescribe the proper accountingtreatment quickly for situations like this. Practising accountants, however, must resolvesuch problems on a day-to-day basis. Through the exercise of good judgment and withthe help of a universally-accepted conceptual framework, practitioners can dismiss certainalternatives quickly and then focus on an acceptable treatment. Harmonization of accounting standards is very important. For instance, Multinational companies doing business in more than one country will find that it is difficult to comply with more than one set of accounting standards established by authorities in different nations. Harmonization of accounting standards will help the world economy in the following ways: by facilitating international transactions and minimizing exchange costs by providing increasingly perfect information; by standardizing information to world-wide economic policy-makers; by improving financial markets information; and by improving government accountability. International investment decisions and financial-based management decisions are then made with less risk. Furthermore, harmonization of accounting policy would help provide a level playing field globally. Regulators and auditors will be receiving the same information, facilitating the evaluation process. In todays accounting environment, there are two formats of accounting systems, namely principles-based system and rules-based system.Almost all companies are required to prepare their financial statements according to one of the two standards. Recently, there has been much debate on whether principle-based accounting would be more efficient than the popular rules-based accounting, in the wake of accounting scandals, such as Enron. As a result of the Enron saga, the current way of accounting has been come under a great deal of scrutiny. Rules-based Accounting Rules-based accounting such as US GAAP is basically a list of detailed rules that must be followed when preparing financial statements. Many accountants favor the prospect of using rules-based standards, because in the absence of rules they could be brought to court if their judgments of the financial statements were incorrect. When there are strict rules that need to be adhered to, the possibility of lawsuits is diminished (Investopedia, 2009). Having a set of rules can increase accuracy and reduce the ambiguity that can trigger aggressive reporting decisions by management. The matrix of rules, however, can cause unnecessary complexity in the preparation of financial statement Principles-based Accounting Principles-based accounting such asIFRS is adopted as a conceptual basis for accountants. A simple set of key objectives are set out to ensure good reporting, e.g. qualitative characteristics, faithful representation. Common examples are provided as guidelines and explain the objectives. Although some rules are unavoidable, the guidelines are not meant to be used for every situation (Investopedia, 2009). Precise requirements can sometimes compel managers to manipulate the statements to fit what is compulsory. The problem with principles-based accounting is that lack of guidelines can yield unreliable and inconsistent information that makes it difficult to compare one organization with another. When contemplating which accounting method is best, it must be made certain that the information provided in the financial statements is relevant, reliable and comparable across reporting periods and entities. Increased discussion has pushed accountants towards principle-based accounting, but it is recognized that the method needs to be modified to make it more effective and efficient. To illustrate thecomparison, for example, depreciation expense for all fixed assets is to be set at 10 percent per annum of the original cost of the asset until the asset is fully depreciated.Such a rule leaves no room for judgment or argument about the amount of depreciation expense to be recognized. Comparability and consistency across firms and through time is virtually assured under such a rule. This is a rules-based system.In contrast, under the principles-based system, depreciation expense for the reporting period should reflect the decline in the economic value of the asset over the period. Such a standard requires the application of judgment and evaluation by both managers and auditors. The goal is to register the realistic value of the asset according to as is basis. Differences between IFRS and U.S. GAAP Statement of Income Under IFRS, extraordinary items are not segregated in the income statement, while, under US GAAP, they are shown below the net income. Consolidation IFRS favors a control model whereas U.S. GAAP prefers a risks-and-rewards model. Some entities consolidated in accordance with FIN 46(R) may have to be shown separately under IFRS. Inventory Under IFRS, LIFO (Last In, First out) cannot be used while under U.S. GAAP,companies have the choice between LIFO and FIFO (First In, First Out). Using the LIFO method results in lower gross profit, which allows a company tobe taxed less. Earning-per-Share Under IFRS, the earning-per-share calculation does not average the individual interim period calculations, whereas under U.S. GAAP the computation averages the individual interim period incremental shares. Development Costs These costs can be capitalized under IFRS if certain criteria are met, while it is considered as expenses under U.S. GAAP(Remi Forgeas, 2008). Advantages Rules-based System Increased accuracy, reduced ambiguity and a diminished possibility of lawsuits. Rule-based standards are generally considered easier to audit for compliance purposes, and may produce more consistent and comparable financial reports across entities. Auditor display higher confident in decision making because they have a bright-light guidelines. Principles-based System The fundamental advantage of principles-based accounting is that its broad guidelines can be practical for a variety of circumstances Potentially very flexible with regard to new and changing products and environments. As such, they should also require less maintenance. Another advantage of a principles-based system is that it would result in simpler standards. Principles-based system would lead to standards that would be less than 12 pages long, instead of over 100 pages. Accountants are afforded the flexibility to input their expertise and judgment more freely in line with the professional code in producing the financial statements. Such deployment of their skills and experience will enhance their professionalism. Disadvantages Rules-based System Lack of transparency of disclosure. In the wake of recent accounting scandals, such as Enron and Worldcom, investors are becominghypersensitive to the reliability of published accounts and suspicious of the possibility of inflated earnings. The major drawback to a rules-based system is the complexity in the preparation of financial statements May include a lack of flexibility with regard to changing conditions and new products, hence requiring almost continual maintenance at times. Frequently subjectto manipulation as entities may search for loopholes that meet the literal wording of the standard but violate the intent of the standard. Principles-based System Critics of a principles-based approach argue that financial statements are more difficult to audit andwould likely lose their comparability and consistency across industries and issues regarding income measurement and recognition would remain controversial. For example, how much income will General Electric actually recognize on a multi-year defense contract under the percentage of completion method of accounting? Will this be comparable to the income reported by its competitors? To the extent that they rely on individual judgment to interpret and implement the standards, there is a danger that they can be used to manipulate financial results. For example, what ifthe auditors behaving badly? Abuse their trust and fail to apply the principles in good faith consistent with the intent and spirit of the standards. Auditors display less confidence in their decisions. Between the rules-based and principles-based modules, it is felt that the latter will be more practical and preferred by the global community, given its universal appeal based on ethics, sound judgment, transparency, credibility and even downright common sense factors. Moreover, in the globalised business arena, this system would be easier to adopt, comprehend and acceptable as against rigid rules that may be interpreted differently from one country to another. Example Cases Enron Case U.S. accounting standards are considered to be rule-based model. For example, we look at the Enron scandal, which broke in October 2001 and eventually led to the collapse of the Enron Corporation. Through the use of accounting loopholes, special purpose entities (SPE), and poor financial reporting, Enron was able to cover up billions of dollars in debt from failed deals and projects.In the U.S, Accounting law allows a company to exclude a SPE from its own financial statements if an independent party has control of the SPE, and if this independent party owns at least 3 percent of the SPE. Enron needed to find a way to hide the debt since high debt levels would lower the investment grade and trigger banks to recall lendings. Using the Enrons stock as collateral, the SPE, which was headed by the CFO Fastow, borrowed large sums of money. And this money wasused to balance Enrons overvalued contracts. Thus, the SPE enabled Enron to convert loans and assets burdened with debt obligations into income. In addition, the taking over by the SPE made Enron transfer more stock to SPE. However, the debt and assets purchased by the SPE, which was actually burdened with large amount of debts, were not reported on Enrons financial accounts. Enron was also guilty of using a dubious mark-to-market accounting system in its forward gas contract sales whereby income was estimated as the present value of net future cashflows to indicate true economic value. When these projects faltered, income was still recorded based on the initial value which of course was incorrect. As a result more projects had to be created to sustain a steady income inflow to appease the shareholders. Shareholders lost nearly $11 billion when Enrons stock price, which hit a high of US$90 per share in mid 2000, plummeted to less than $1 by the end of November 2001. Transmile case A special audit carried out by Moores Rowland Risk Management Sdn. Bhd, showed that Transmile made pre-tax losses of RM126 million and RM77 million for 2006 and 2005, respectively, instead of pre-tax profits of RM207 million and RM120 million as originally reported a total of RM530 million in overstatement. Their auditors Deloitte Touche declined to approve the accounts when the company failed to furnish them proof to substantiate certain trade receivables. However, the loss was not detected by Deloitte Touche. Worldcom case This case unveils how one of the worlds largest Mississippi telecommunicationproviders managed to make $3.8 billion disappear? The answer lies in the companys CFO Scott Sullivans treatment of capital expenditures and the accrual method, one of the basic principles of accounting.Sullivan, fraudulently took billions of dollars in operating expenses and spread them out across so-called property accounts, which is a type of capital expense accounts. This allowed Worldcom to charge the expenses off slowly, and in smaller amounts, instead of reporting them immediately to investors. The U.Ss rules-based accounting system is lack of transparency.Transparency is becoming a matter of survival rather than choice. The way toaddress at least some of the flaws mentioned above is to advocate more transparency in financial reporting. This essentially means that companies would start providing all the information the market considers to be relevant rather than simply fulfilling their mandatory regula tory requirements. Southern Bank Bhd (SBB) case In the review of Southern Bank Bhds audited financial statements for the year ended Dec 31, 2005 there was inappropriate accounting treatment amounting to RM 160 million as follows: Inappropriately valuing certain derivative financial instruments and not writing down in full the collateral value. Wrongly writing back specific provisions made on certain foreclosed properties. Capitalizing instead of expensing certain costs which is similar to Worldcom financial scandal. It appears that the accounting and auditing standard in Malaysia is very low. In order to protect the interest of the small investors and shareholders, the accounting and auditing standard should be upgraded. Conclusion Personally, I do not favor relying on either principles. Without credible principles, the rules are meaningless. Without rules the accountants are not protected. We had principle-based rules up until the IASB/FASB was created. The more specific rules or guidance were issued following lawsuits against auditors or accountants, questioning their professional judgment. The profession felt that to issue specific rules would reduce the likelihood of lawsuits against the accountants professional judgment. Interestingly, we are now coming full circle and looking to simplify how accounting is interpreted. We will make this switch and then in another 10-20 years, if another accounting scandal arises and everyone will ask for more rules again? However, we may be well served by acknowledging that neither a purely rules-based nor a purely principles-based system will be the best option on its own. Perhaps a largely principles-based system policed by a simple rules code could be the ideal solution.Any set of rules will be subject to someones interpretation. The rules will only be as good as those who use them. (2,490 words)